In Part 1 of this series, It’s Just a Passing Phase , we defined the sine waveform of the most common AC signals, illustrated how AC voltage and current each vary as a sine waveform in AC circuits, and we examine the concept of phase angles in describing the alignment (or lack of it) between a voltage sine wave and a current sine wave. Now we’re going to examine a bit of the dynamics of voltage and current within capacitors and inductors to get a sense for just how these components impose phase angles between voltage and current sine waves. Along the way we will describe the concept of reactance , and we will wrap up Part 2 of this Complex Impedance series with the calculation of capacitive and inductive reactances. First, let’s harken back to the big picture points from Part 1, the roadmap of where we’re going: Voltage and current applied to AC circuits are each represented by smoothly changing sine waveforms of equal frequency, depicting the regular reversals of direction and smoothly changing magnitudes of each. The applied voltage and current sine waves often get out of step with one another so the two representations no longer oscillate together, as if one sine wave is shifted ahead or behind the other in time, or phase . The amount of deviation between the voltage and current sine wave signals in a circuit is described by a phase angle between the two signals, in units of degrees. Phase angle shifts between voltage and current are imposed by a type of opposition to current flow called reactance in AC circuit components, specifically inductive reactance and capacitive reactance , measured in units of ohms. Inductive and capacitive reactances combine in a complex way with resistance in a circuit to determine the overall impedance of the circuit. Complex impedance is described with both a magnitude in ohms and a phase angle in degrees, and there are two primary shorthand methods of representing complex impedance in writing. Impedance magnitude and phase angle impact the behavior of AC circuits, particularly with respect to power transfer and resonance, as in RF antenna circuits, oscillator circuits, matching networks, power supply circuits, and many others. We covered points 1 through 3 in Part 1. In Part 2 we will focus on point 4. Let’s react! AC Circuit Components and Phase Angles: Stating something obvious to many, an AC circuit is one designed to operate with alternating current flowing through its components, sine wave-described voltage and current surging back and forth in regular reversals. Not so obvious, perhaps, is the fact that some of the components in an AC circuit will affect the phase relationship between voltage and current in the circuit. That is, some components have the effect of causing the voltage and current to get out of synchronization with one another, and as noted in Part 1 of this series we can describe the asynchronous relationship between voltage and current sine waves with a phase angle. Let’s consider the phase effects of three common components: resistors (R), capacitors (C), and inductors (L). Resistors : Resistors impose electrical resistance in DC circuits, measured in ohms. Resistors in AC circuits do the same thing they do in DC circuits – they oppose the flow of current somewhat, depending upon their resistive value. In AC circuits, a resistor creates resistance in both positive and negative current flow directions. A purely resistive circuit does not impact the voltage and current phase angle relationship. So, resistors alone in an AC circuit do not create any phase angle differences. Voltage and current will remain politely hand-in-hand. We’ll come back to the matter of resistance in combination with other effects a bit later. A purely resistive AC circuit has no effect on voltage-current phase angle. Capacitors : Capacitors store electrical energy in an electric field that builds up between its two surfaces. As current flows in one direction in an AC circuit, as represented by the upper half of a current sine wave, positive charge will build on one surface of the capacitor and negative charge will build on the opposite surface until the capacitor reaches its maximum charge capacity (as measured in units of farads). As the capacitor reaches its maximum charge capacity the current must reduce over time because there is no more “room” for additional charge to be stored, even though the voltage is still pushing to pack more into the capacitor! Thus, in a capacitor current reduces over time even as the voltage is peaking! In fact, following a surge of current that will accompany the initial application of voltage to a circuit, a capacitive circuit will settle into a sine wave rhythm of voltage and current that looks like the relationship below. Note that the energy storing cycle of the capacitor is in phase with the voltage cycle – as voltage peaks at the 90-degree and 270-degree positions of its cycle, the greatest charge is stored in the capacitor. Ideal Capacitive Circuit Phase Angle Relationship However, the current drops to zero as the voltage peaks at its 90-degree point in the cycle along with maximum energy storage. As described above, the voltage has pushed a maximum charge into the capacitor and no more current can flow at this point of the cycle. However, once the applied voltage begins to drop after its 90-degree peak the capacitor begins to discharge in the opposite direction. Current flows readily with the capacitor’s discharge even as the applied voltage signal passes the 0 voltage position of 180 degrees. Now in the opposite direction, current flow reduces and stops due to the capacitor reaching a maximum charge capacity with opposite (negative) polarity, even as the applied voltage tries to push more charge in the negative direction at its 270-degree peak cycle position. Rinse and repeat at various frequencies of AC cycling. Phase Relationship: In a purely capacitive circuit, the current (I) leads the voltage (E) by 90 degrees. Capacitive Reactance : Notice also that a capacitor, thanks to its limited charge-holding capacity, has an effect of opposing current flow. In spite of applied voltage, the current must reduce in magnitude, stop, and ultimately reverse. This opposition to AC current flow, coupled with the phase-shifting effect, is called capacitive reactance . We will consider the relationship of reactance and resistance in impeding AC in a moment, but first on to inductors. Reactance couples opposition to AC current flow with a voltage-current phase angle shift. Inductors : An inductor stores energy in a magnetic field as current flows through it. By physical principles a magnetic field is created in the space around any conductor in which current flows. The strength of the magnetic field increases with increasing current, or it decreases with decreasing current. The direction of magnetic lines of force, or flux, depends upon the direction of current flow in the conductor. A magnetic field’s flux will oscillate around an inductor with the changing AC current direction. Conversely, a changing magnetic field about any conductor induces an electromotive force (a voltage) in the conductor. This is called electromagnetic induction . Interestingly, as current is pushed through an inductor component by an applied voltage, the inductor builds up a magnetic field over time. But since the magnetic field is changing in strength as it builds up, it also has the effect of inducing another voltage within the inductor component. But, this induced voltage will be of the opposite polarity of the applied voltage that is building up the magnetic field with current flow in the first place! The induced opposite-polarity voltage is called the back EMF , and it is the back EMF against which the applied voltage to the circuit must do work to create current and store energy as a magnetic field. In an AC circuit containing an inductor component, you can imagine the regular reversals of current building (inflating) and releasing (deflating) a magnetic field about the inductor with each sine wave cycle of current, causing a regular flip-flopping field of magnetic flux polarity (“north-south” magnetic field reversals), and an associated back EMF being induced and flip-flopping in cycle with it all. The voltage applied to a circuit must overcome the back EMF induced by changing magnetic flux. Tracking the phase effects of the inductor is a little more challenging than for the capacitor. Keep in mind that the magnitude of the back EMF voltage is greatest when the current change (and resulting magnetic field change) is greatest. It is the change in current flow (and resulting magnetic field change) that induces the back EMF. And the back EMF opposes the applied EMF, although not at quite equivalent magnitude. Consider this phase relationship diagram depicting applied voltage, back EMF voltage, and the current in an inductive circuit. Ideal Inductive Circuit Phase Angle Relationship At the 90-degree position along the time axis, the applied voltage is zero and the current flow is at its positive peak. As the applied voltage begins to go negative the current is reduced from its peak value and, therefore, changes in magnitude. This change induces a back EMF opposite in polarity from the applied EMF, but perhaps of somewhat lesser magnitude (voltage), so there is still a small resultant voltage of the polarity of the applied EMF signal to produce current flow. As the current changes with the sum voltage of EMF and back EMF, its change induces back EMF that is in phase with the applied EMF. The change in current is greatest as it reverses direction at the zero line, so back EMF is greatest at these positions. Following a negative peak value the applied EMF voltage returns toward zero, and the current levels off to its negative peak maximum. Since the current magnitude is no longer changing rapidly at a current peak position, the back EMF falls to zero. Again, cycle after cycle repeats this steady state phase relationship in inductors. In the inductor, the greatest storage of energy in the magnetic field occurs when the current magnitude peaks, since current flow creates the magnetic field. So, in a way counter to the capacitor, the energy storage of the inductor is in phase with the current rather than with the voltage waveform. Further, the resultant waveform cycles of this complex dance among EMF, back EMF, and current settles into one in which the applied voltage leads the current, or exactly opposite of the capacitive relationship. Phase Relationship: In a purely inductive circuit, the voltage (E) leads the current (I) by 90 degrees. Inductive Reactance: As noted, the back EMF opposes the applied EMF, with the sum voltage in the inductor being of reduced magnitude. A reduced voltage results in reduced current flow, so the inductor also has a reactance , or an opposition to AC current flow through the inductor. ELI the ICE man: You may want to remember reactance phase shifting effects using the mnemonic ELI the ICE man . With ELI, the voltage or EMF (E) in an inductor (L) leads the current (I). With ICE, the current (I) in a capacitor (C) leads the voltage (E). Reactance and Frequency: Summarizing a few important points, reactance in AC circuits opposes the flow of AC current and has the unit ohms. Reactance may be inductive or capacitive in nature, and the phase relationship that results between voltage and current is different in each pure case. Let’s now consider the computation of reactances along with the effect of the applied signal frequency. Capacitive and inductive reactance changes with the applied frequency. Capacitive Reactance : Capacitive reactance increases as the applied signal frequency decreases. Lower frequencies mean that more current will flow in each individual sine wave cycle. More current flowing generally results in greater capacitor charge accumulating with each cycle, and thus, more energy must be exchanged each cycle taxing the voltage source. Additionally, a lower capacitance value increases capacitive reactance, as a capacitor may achieve maximum charge storage more readily and reduce current flow commensurately. Capacitive reactance Xc is calculated as: Inductive Reactance: Inductive reactance increases with increasing frequency. With increased frequency, the rate of change of the current and resulting magnetic field changes also increases. Since changing current and magnetic fields results in greater back EMF, the opposition to current flow is increased. Inductive Reactance (X(L)) is calculated as: So, you may calculate the magnitude of reactance in a capacitor or an inductor easily if you know the applied AC frequency and the value of the capacitor or inductor. But, what about circuits that contain both inductors and capacitors, and that have resistance to boot? What is to be done with these combinations? How do you merge capacitive reactance, inductive reactance, and resistance to obtain a circuit’s impedance? And what about that phase angle — how does it figure into this whole situation? We will dive deeply into those questions in Part 3 of this series on Complex Impedance. Complex Impedance Part 3: Putting It All Together Complex Impedance Part 1: Just a Passing Phase -- Stu WØSTU

Multipath distortion is a common phenomenon that I've become accustomed to living in a mountainous region. It can mess up your signal and create some interesting and confusing distortion. Multipath can also occur in other areas when signals bounce off objects such as tall buildings. The figure below shows several different ways that multiple signals can propagate from the transmitter (a mobile station) to a receiver (a handheld radio). Multipath distortion occurs when the signal from the transmitting station takes multiple paths and recombines at the receiving station. Signals may travel directly by "line of sight," scatter from irregular surfaces, diffract over or around sharp edges, and reflect from some surfaces and materials. Each signal path takes slightly different time, potentially scrambling the signal phase relationships of the various signal paths at the receiving station. Scattering  occurs when radio waves encounter objects or irregularities—such as rough surfaces, small obstacles (e.g., leaves, raindrops, or rocky edges), or atmospheric variations—that are comparable to or smaller than the wavelength. The waves are redirected in multiple, often random directions, spreading the signal’s energy. Diffraction  is the bending of radio waves around the edges of an obstacle or through an opening, allowing signals to reach areas that would otherwise be shadowed. It happens when a wave encounters a barrier (like a hill, building, or knife-edge structure) and curves into the region behind it.   Reflection  occurs when radio waves strike a large, relatively smooth surface—like a mountain face or tall building—and bounce off at an angle equal to the angle of incidence (think of a mirror). Reflection is wavelength-dependent but typically involves surfaces much larger than the wavelength.   Constructive or Destructive? These signals take different paths, some longer than others, arriving at slightly different times at the receiver. These multiple signals combine at the receiver and may cause multipath distortion because of constructive and destructive interference. The figure below shows how two sinusoids can combine. In the upper diagram, the two waves are in phase and add together to create an even stronger waveform. In the middle diagram, the worst case is shown with the waveforms 180 degrees out of phase, causing them to cancel out when combined. Any phase difference other than 180 degrees causes partial effects, including partial signal cancellation as shown in the lower diagram. In the general case, we may have multiple signals of various amplitudes arriving at different times (phases), causing complex interactions. The net result is multipath distortion  of the recovered signal, usually manifesting as garbled or distorted audio to variable degrees of severity. When two signals combine, waveform amplitudes sum together. There can be constructive interference , destructive interference , or partial effects including cancelling interference. The upper diagram shows perfectly constructive interference, boosting the amplitude of the combined signal. The center diagram depicts perfectly cancelling interference, 180-degree phase difference between the two waves. The lower diagram depicts a partially cancelling interference, diminishing the amplitude of the resultant combined signal. Time and Space These multiple paths can vary with time, due to changes in atmospheric conditions. You can be sitting at home listening on your 2-meter FM transceiver, and another station's signal varies in strength and distortion. An even more pronounced variation happens when you move your receive antenna a short distance (some fraction of a wavelength). Doing so may move you from an area of destructive  interference to one of constructive  interference. This is easier to do with a portable station such as a handheld transceiver or mobile unit in a vehicle, and not so easy with a fixed base-station antenna. Experienced VHF operators change their position slightly, searching for a "hot spot" to improve their reception. These interference patterns tend to set up based on the wavelength of the signal, with maximum constructive interference (a hot spot) about 180 degrees away from maximum deconstructive interference (a bad spot). For the 2-meter band, the wavelength of a radio signal is, well, about 2 meters long, so moving 180 degrees corresponds to 1 meter (or about three feet). Sometimes, when signals are weak on 2 meters, you'll hear the suggestion of "move a few feet and try again." Note that it only takes about 3 nsec for a radio signal to propagate 1 meter, so the time shift between the two signals can be very small. Confusion Multipath propagation can be quite confusing. Here's a real-life story of three radio amateurs communicating using a 2-meter repeater located within a mountainous area. (We'll call these hams Paul, Sally, and Leroy.) The terrain in the area caused significant multipath distortion between the hams and the repeater and between each other. This resulted in Paul's signal sounding distorted going into the repeater, which was heard as a distorted signal coming from the repeater. At first, Sally and Leroy thought Paul's signal had a problem and perhaps his radio was malfunctioning. While diagnosing the problem, Sally listened to Paul's signal directly on the repeater input (simplex) and found that his signal sounded just fine. This made them wonder if the repeater was having a problem. But no, Sally and Leroy's signals were coming through the repeater without a problem. Leroy also tuned to the repeater input frequency to hear Paul direct but he found that Paul's signal still sounded distorted. However, the distortion was not quite the same...the amount of distortion was less and the tone of it just sounded different. What was going on? The path from Paul's radio to the repeater was distorted due to multipath distortion. The repeater just repeats this distorted signal, so Sally and Leroy heard a distorted signal from Paul. When Sally listened to Paul's signal directly, there was no multipath and the signal sounded fine. But when Leroy listened to Paul directly, that path also had multipath distortion with somewhat different characteristics, which really confused things. Dealing With Multipath So what can we do about this problem? How do we deal with multipath distortion? Here are a few tricks and tips to consider. First off, be aware that multipath effects exist and can cause on-the-air distortion in radio signals. So don't assume the other station has a transmitter problem. As mentioned earlier, moving a few feet (depending on wavelength) can cause a large change in signal amplitude and quality. For example, the wavelength for 2 meters is about 6 feet, so moving about one-quarter to one-half wavelength (1.5 to 3 feet) can make a big difference. Or not. Using a directional antenna can really help as it tends to focus on one signal path and attenuate others. Point the antenna for best reception, and it may not be obvious which direction will be best. Along those same lines, be aware that the best signal path may not be in the apparent direction as signals bounce off mountains or structures. A key takeaway is to move around a bit to try to optimize your signal strength. It is not totally predictable, so try something and see what happens. The same thing applies to pointing your directional antenna: the "obvious" heading may not be the best heading. Try something and see what happens.   Wrap It Up Multipath distortion might sound like a tech nightmare, but once you get the hang of it, it’s just another quirk of the radio landscape. Whether you’re tweaking your ham radio setup, boosting your Wi-Fi, or trying to catch a distant TV station, a little know-how and some trial-and-error can go a long way. So, next time your signal drops, don’t despair—grab your antenna, take a few steps, and outsmart those bouncing waves.

So you received your brand new FCC call sign and you have a transceiver for 2m and/or 70 cm. Now how do you find a repeater and make a contact there? This can be a bit more challenging than first expected. There are lots of frequencies to choose from and lots of different repeaters, so how do you figure this out? First, I’ll make a few comments on FM repeaters. Repeaters generally sit in one location and on one pair of frequencies, providing radio coverage over a particular area. This tends to cause a “watering hole” effect as radio hams choose a particular repeater (or repeaters) to monitor. Often an informal community grows up around a repeater based on who hangs out there. Some repeaters have a designated use, such as support of ARES or RACES. So how do you pick a repeater? Ask Local Hams The first place to check for repeater recommendations is with local hams that are active on VHF/UHF FM. They can probably steer you towards a handful of repeaters to get you started. Obviously, it helps if you know someone that monitors a particular repeater, so you have someone to contact. Check a Repeater Directory RepeaterBook phone app is an excellent free repeater directory. The next place to look is in a repeater directory. The ARRL Repeater Directory is the most established source of repeater information and is available from the ARRL web site . There are a number of online repeater directories that have come on the scene, including some iOS and Android apps. The great thing about the mobile apps is that they can use your smartphone’s GPS to help search for repeaters in your specific location. This is especially helpful when you are traveling. The RepeaterBook.com site and associated apps are free and seems to work well. If you are in a metropolitan area, you may be overwhelmed by the number of repeaters listed for the 2-meter and 70-cm bands. There are many frequencies available for repeater use and it seems that hams like to fill them up. In a smaller town or rural area, the number of repeaters available will usually be lower and the choices more limited. Search The Internet Another useful approach is to do an Internet search on “amateur radio repeater” and your location (name of city or town). Most radio clubs will have a web page that describes their repeaters, including frequency information, location and any special guidelines for using their system. Also look for ham radio nets that are held on the club repeaters. These are often a great way to get started since there should be radio activity during the published time of the net. RepeaterBook, the creator of the app shown above, also has a website listing of repeaters with various search parameters. Listen Another thing to do is listen to the various repeater frequencies to find out what activity is out there. Many of our best FM repeaters are quiet most of the day. You may end up wondering if they are even on the air since the activity can be very light. But listening a lot can help you understand the kind of ham activity that occurs on each repeater. Over time, you’ll get to know the repeater and the type of hams that tend to use it. Making a Contact Once you’ve found a repeater, then it’s time to make a contact. Typically on repeaters, hams will just transmit and say their callsign and maybe their status. For example, after I hop into the car and turn on the ham rig, I will usually transmit and say “K Ø N R mobile listening.” Someone that wants to talk to me will call me by saying my callsign followed by their callsign. For example, my buddy Stu might say “K Ø N R this is W Ø S T U”. I will reply and start chatting with him. Just saying your call sign and “listening” might be a bit too passive if you really want to talk to someone. If I am very much looking for a contact (a QSO), I might say something like “This is K Ø N R, anyone copy?” or “This is K Ø N R, can someone give me a signal report?” It is fine to tell them that you are just getting on the air and want to check out whether you have your radio programmed correctly. Most hams will welcome you to the repeater and try to help. (If they don’t, then this might not be the repeater for you anyway.) If you don’t get a reply, then maybe no one is listening. Or maybe they are busy doing other things and are not interested in chatting right then. Don’t take it personally, don’t get frustrated but just try again at another time. I hope this article gives you a few tips for finding a repeater and getting on the air. Good luck with your first contact! -- Bob KØNR

On reddit/amateurradio , a new ham shared these observations after being licensed for two months. At Ham Radio School, we are always looking for ways to help folks get started in ham radio. We think these are useful points and are sharing them here, along with some comments. Observations from a new ham: Lots of information, [there is] no one complete source. There’s a bit of a fraternity aspect to this hobby, where you can’t really get all the even initial information you need in one summary somewhere. It’s part of the fun but can also be frustrating. You have to pay your dues in research and that’s expected but hams are generally helpful. HRS: Amateur radio has a wide range of interests and activities so it is difficult to cover it all. Here at Ham Radio School, many of our articles address questions that newcomers to the hobby have. Our online courses provide all the new ham needs to prepare for licensing. Following licensing, we recommend getting familiar with FM simplex and repeater operations using a handheld transceiver (HT) and/or mobile FM transceiver, each with dual-band function (2-meter and 70-centimeter bands). Ham Radio School online courses feature video lesson instruction explaining all exam question pool items. Antennas! The big barrier to entry is not the license test, the radio equipment, or even knowledge: it’s friggin’ antennas. They are hard for beginners to understand and hard to assemble without effort and unsightly effects at a house. V/UHF are easier and smaller; HF harder. New folks: start with V/UHF (e.g., N9TAX), then end-fed wire RECEPTION, then end-fed wire Tx (baluns, SWR, etc), then dipoles, etc. HRS: That's very true, especially for HF antennas! VHF antennas are not usually that big of a barrier. Typically, VHF/UHF HT antennas and mobile antennas that may be magnetic or clip mounting on a vehicle are easy to install and ready to operate without operator adjustment. We have quite a collection of articles about antennas . Also, keep in mind that antennas are a fun area to experiment with or 'home brew' at a reasonable cost. Antennas are a big topic, and often confusing for beginners. We help to clear up antenna topics, keeping things simple. There’s a lot less to listen to most of the time than expected (depending on location). Most V/UHF repeaters lay silent most of the time. You need to know specific times for “nets” (meetings), and that commute times are busiest. For HF, it’s very dependent on your antenna, of course. Start by listening to a local SDR on the web, then buy a cheap SDR box for your computer and hook up to an end-fed to experiment with the antenna at home in comparison. HRS: Many regions have plenty of repeaters to choose from, but they are often very quiet. Finding local nets is a great way to be sure there is activity at a particular time and frequency. This article has some ideas on finding repeaters: How to Choose a Repeater. It feels like there are lots of modes, but early on it feels like 3: voice/SSB, CW/morse, and a gazillion digital modes. I haven’t made it past voice yet. HRS: Another good point. Most new Technicians will start out using FM on the VHF/UHF bands. Until you've spent some time studying Morse Code, that mode won't be a viable option. SSB is the other most common voice mode, especially on the HF bands. This article provides an overview of all these modes: Loads of Modes. Radios vary a lot, but the main factors are (a) power (100W for base stations, less for portable, 5W for handhelds/“HTs”); (b) size/portability; (c) digital modes supported; (d) frequency bands supported (all bands or just HF or just V/UHF); (e) user interface. HRS: These are more good observations, but Ham Radio School would approach the topic in a different order. The typical handheld transceiver (HT) is often a good first radio because it provides some useful capability at a low cost (<$100). It also lines up well with the VHF/UHF privileges of the Technician license. Even if you have your eyes on more advanced ham operating, having an HT available is a good thing. This article discusses some other radio form factors and band configurations: What Are the Different Kinds of Ham Radios? Handhelds, mobiles, and base stations are the three basic types of ham radios, each with unique features and capabilities that we help you understand. Hobby is very heavily male, heavily older, skews higher IQ. Generalizations, and just my observations. HRS: The available data supports this observation. It is generally a good group of folks, although you can run into the occasional grumpy old dude who is wound a bit too tight. Being a technical hobby, you will encounter many people with a wide range of knowledge and skills, many of them are topic experts. Ham radio is an endeavor for everyone! And it's easy to earn a license with just a little study. Need a General license to really explore HF. Self-evident by frequency access, but as a new person it’s not entirely clear. There are two worlds in ham radio: V/UHF and HF, roughly corresponding to local vs distant (DX) comms. HRS: This is very true. The Technician license lets you get a taste of HF operating, primarily using SSB on the 10-meter band. Right now, we are at the peak of the sunspot cycle, so 10-meter propagation is excellent during the day. Technician license holders may communicate around the globe using the 10-meter band. To gain access to the other HF bands, you'll need to upgrade to General. This article explains it all: Tech, General, or Extra License... What's the difference? Hams are pretty tolerant of new-person ignorance/mistakes. Just don’t transmit on a frequency you’re not licensed for, that’s not forgiven easily (and is illegal generally). And don’t get into the “emergency use” debate! HRS: Most hams are understanding if you make an honest mistake. They've been there themselves and even experienced hams will screw up from time to time. The important thing is to have an attitude of trying to do things right and learn from your mistakes. The hobby is more fun if you think of it as a journey vs arriving at a destination. Learning is continuous, it seems. HRS: Absolutely! It would be boring if you just learned it all in a few weeks and were "done." There are many things to learn, and it's all fun. The typical ham learns significantly across the preparation for Technician to General to Extra license, but there is a ton to learn beyond the fundamentals covered in the exam topics. Most hams will engage in life-long learning through hands-on operations, observations, affiliation with other knowledgeable hams, conducting online research, and just trying new things. There are so many facets to ham radio, "the hobby of a thousand hobbies," and technological development is continuous. It is virtually impossible to become an expert in every aspect of ham radio. Don’t be afraid to transmit (legally). The hobby is more about short conversations with a lot of different people than long conversations with a few. Or just learning. There are LOTS of nooks and crannies to the hobby. Likely you can find one you like. It takes time. HRS: And we will add, try some things and "get on the air." That completes the list of observations from a new ham. For other tips on getting started with ham radio, take a look at these articles: Five Common Mistakes New Hams Make and I Got My License! Now What? If you are ready to earn your Technician license and get started in the world of ham radio, or if you are ready to take the next step and upgrade to General or Extra, Ham Radio School is here to help. Check out our license preparation courses: Technician General Extra We offer personalized email support with every course subscription so that you can get your questions answered. Our online courses offer multiple ways to learn and prepare for the license exam. Every lesson features a book section reading, a video lecture, a review of exam content, an interactive quiz, and depth options for learning 'beyond the exam.' Each course also provides practice exams to test your readiness for the real exam, as well as pointers for finding exam sessions in person or online. You can do it! Get your license or upgrade started today.

At Ham Radio School we really believe in the old adage that a picture is worth a thousand words. Visualization is often the key to understanding radio concepts. When it comes to visualizing signals, we use simplified visual models of signals that exhibit the important characteristics of signals, such as frequency, amplitude, and change over time. These visual models are not quite like real signals physically, but they provide us tools for thinking about signals in a simpler way. Signals: Before we jump into our examination of signal graphical representations, let's consider what is meant by a signal. We need to understand the thing we want to represent with a visual model to ensure the visual model is not flawed in some fundamental way. One pertinent definition provided by Merriam-Webster for signal is: a detectable physical quantity or impulse (such as a voltage, current, or magnetic field strength) by which messages or information can be transmitted. A signal may be a varying voltage or current within an electric circuit. The sounds of a radio operator's voice are converted by a microphone into AC voltages that represent moment-to-moment variation in voice frequencies and strengths. This band of dynamic audio frequencies is one type of baseband signal that is used to modulate a radio frequency carrier during the RF transmission process. These audio frequency signals are AC voltages, changing the direction of electrical force (voltage) in the microphone circuit from a few hundred to a few thousand times each second, creating commensurate surges of electrical current through the circuit that reverse direction at these same audio frequency rates. Physically, these signals are AC voltages and currents of a range of frequencies moving back-and-forth in the microphone circuit. A radio transmitter merges the audio baseband signal with a radio frequency signal to place the audio information into radio frequency (RF) waveforms that can be efficiently transmitted through space as electromagnetic waves. While this modulation process is ongoing in the transmitter's circuits, the signals remain variations in electrical voltages and currents, although translated to much higher frequencies. These RF electrical signals energize an antenna, moving currents back and forth in the antenna's driven element. The result is the radiation of electromagnetic waves that mimic the frequency and strength variations of the electrical signals. The electrical signals that were voltage and current variations in a circuit are now electromagnetic (EM) wave signals traveling through space at the speed of light. The upshot of this signal discussion is that signals may be generated at audio frequencies and at radio frequencies, and their physical form may be electrical or electromagnetic. A visual model must represent signals of either physical form, and the model should be able to depict signal frequency, strength, and variations in these over time. Time & Frequency Domain Integrated Model: The two most common visual models of signals are the Time Domain View and the Frequency Domain View . These two signal depictions are closely related, as illustrated in the integrated 3D image of Figure 1. Figure 1: The relationship between Time Domain and Frequency Domain views. For this illustration, an audio band signal is depicted. The three axes of the Figure 1 illustration are: Frequency Axis - (angled front-left to back-right.) Ranges from approximately 200 hertz to 3000 hertz in this illustration. Electrical signal oscillations are spread out across this continuous range. Only a subset of signal oscillations is depicted along this axis for simplification, but a continuous range of electrical oscillations may comprise a baseband audio signal such as a voice signal. The upward wave oscillations indicate voltage and current in an arbitrarily designated positive direction in a circuit, and the downward wave oscillations indicate voltage and current in the opposite "negative" direction. Time Axis - (angled back-left to front-right.) Signal waveforms flow left-to-right along the time axis. The present instant of time is indicated by the intersection position of the three axes. Signal waveforms oscillate in positive-negative cycles as they flow along the time axis. Amplitude Axis - (vertical axis.) The vertical extent of a signal waveform indicates the strength of the signal in terms of voltage or current. Signal oscillations in the positive (upward) direction and negative (downward) direction may vary over time, indicating changes in signal strength over time. Notice that the signal waveforms may represent the positive-negative directions of voltage and current flow in a circuit, or they may represent the positive-negative oscillations of an EM wave as it propagates through free space. Normally, a signal will be depicted by either a Time Domain View or a Frequency Domain View, but not as an integrated 3D illustration as in Figure 1. Time Domain View: The Time Domain View of a signal is captured from the perspective of the left-side observer of Figure 1 for which time becomes the horizontal axis. This observer views the model directly down the frequency axis to obtain a view as illustrated in the left-side inset graphic. Amplitude is depicted on the vertical axis. While more than one frequency can be overlaid onto a Time Domain View for comparisons, single frequency depictions in the time domain are more common. In this view, changes in frequency can be illustrated by compressed or expanded waveforms along the time axis. Amplitude changes over time can be depicted as variations in waveform height along the time axis. Figure 2: Time Domain Views of a baseband modulating audio signal and the modulation of RF signals using AM and FM modulation. Figure 2 depicts Time Domain Views of both AM and FM modulation by an audio baseband signal. Amplitude is depicted as voltage variations, and the AM changes in amplitude of the RF signal mirror the audio waveform amplitude variations. The FM modulation depicts no amplitude changes of the RF signal, but rather frequency deviations driven by the amplitude of the audio signal. (The audio signal is replicated within the RF signal for illustration of this effect.) Frequency Domain View: The Frequency Domain View of a signal is captured from the perspective of the right-side observer of Figure 1 for which frequency becomes the horizontal axis. This observer views the model directly down the time axis to obtain a view as illustrated in the right-side inset graphic. Again, amplitude is depicted on the vertical axis, and the range of frequencies in a signal is spread horizontally across the frequency axis. If the frequency domain were dynamic in time, the observer would see the spectrum of frequencies varying in amplitude over time. However, most Frequency Domain Views are static and depict only a single instant in time. When a continuous range of frequencies is depicted, the Frequency Domain View may contain filled or solid ranges across segments of frequency with amplitude variations depicted across the spectrum of frequency, as in Figure 3. Figure 3: Notional Frequency Domain View of CW, USB, and AM signals. Figure 3 depicts a range of RF in the 20-meter band, with amplitude normalized to a 0-1 scale of voltage. A narrow spectrum CW signal is depicted below 14.150 MHz (left), and an upper sideband signal ranges from roughly 14.155-14.158 MHz (center). The two mirrored sidebands of an AM signal are centered on an RF carrier at 14.165 MHz. Summary: Both Time Domain Views and Frequency Domain Views are used to represent signals of many types. The two views are linked, but usually depicted independently, depending on the purpose of the illustration. A Time Domain View depicts time on the horizontal axis, while a Frequency Domain View depicts frequency on the horizontal axis. Both of these types of signal model diagrams are utilized to illustrate radio principles throughout the Ham Radio School series of license preparation courses.

Frequency and wavelength are inversely related properties of electromagnetic waves, including radio waves used in amateur radio transmissions. In ham radio, understanding the relationship between frequency and wavelength is essential for effective radio operating. Basic Relationship Between Frequency and Wavelength The frequency of a radio wave is the number of cycles it completes per second, measured in hertz (Hz). Wavelength, on the other hand, is the physical length of one cycle, measured in meters. This formula mathematically relates these two parameters: Where λ is the wavelength, c is the speed of light, and f is the frequency. This is often simplified to λ  = 300/ f , with λ  in units of meters and f in units of MHz. Because of the inverse relationship between frequency and wavelength, higher frequencies correspond to shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. For all types of electromagnetic radiation, wavelength and frequency have an inverse relationship. Notice how the approximate size of waves decreases as frequency increases across the EM spectrum depicted here. Ham radio operators can use different frequencies for various types of communication, often grouped into bands (e.g., the 80-meter band, the 40-meter band, or the 20-meter band). These band names refer to approximate  wavelengths, which can help operators select the right frequency for a given distance and purpose. Here's a chart of the most popular amateur bands in the high frequency (HF) spectrum: Notice how the band or wavelength decreases in value as we move downward on the table. At the same time, the frequency is increasing. Let's take a look at the 10-meter band. At the low end of the band (28 MHz), the wavelength is actually 300/28 = 10.7 meters, while the high end of the band (29.7 MHz) corresponds to 10.1 meters. So, we round the wavelength off and call it the 10-meter band. It is interesting to note that the wavelength for the 15-meter band goes from 300/21 = 14.3 meters to 300/21.45 = 13.9 meters. So maybe it should have been designated the 14-meter band? I dunno. You'll also find that the 20-meter band spans 21.4m to 20.9m. To make it slightly more confusing, the phone portion in the upper part of the 80-meter band is so short in wavelength that it is also called the 75-meter band. (300 / 4.0 = 75 meters) Mixing It Up Can Cause Confusion The terminology in ham radio can be confusing because we often refer to bands by their wavelength (like the "20-meter band") but also talk about specific frequencies within those bands in megahertz (MHz). For instance, the 20-meter band covers frequencies in the range of 14.000 to 14.350 MHz, so when someone says they are on "14.200 MHz," they designate a specific frequency within the 20-meter band. We often switch back and forth between wavelength and frequency, which can be confusing for the new ham. With experience, you'll just know that 7 MHz is in the 40-meter band, but when you first start out, you'll probably want to refer to a band chart. Sometimes hams are a bit sloppy with their terminology. For example, someone might say, "There is excellent propagation on twenty tonight." Did they mean 20 meters or 20 MHz? For amateur radio purposes, they surely meant 20 meters because 20 MHz is not an authorized frequency. But what if I say I was working DX on 10? Does that mean 10 meters or 10 MHz? We have both. GHz, MHz, kHz If I want to schedule a contact with someone on 20 meters, I will probably specify a frequency, such as 14.250 MHz. Otherwise, it may take a while to tune around and find the other station. Most of the time, frequency in MHz works well for the amateur bands. You may also encounter frequencies specified in kHz, which means the decimal point moves three places to the right, compared to MHz. For example, 14.250 MHz equals 14250.0 kHz. For the shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies), we might use GHz, which is 1000 times a MHz. That is, 1296.0 MHz equals 1.296 GHz (move the decimal point 3 places to the left.) When using kHz, a ham might say, "Meet you on 14250," assuming that you'll know it's the 20-meter ham band at 14250 kHz. Another shortcut happens when both hams know they are talking about the 20-meter band, and one of them says, "I am listening on 250," meaning 14250 kHz or 14.250 MHz. Be precise when specifying a frequency for an online contact, especially with newer hams who may not yet have familiarity with bands, plans, and common ops. Higher or Lower? When teaching license classes, we've been known to say something like, "The higher HF bands work best during daylight hours," referring to the 20-, 17-, 15- & 10-meter bands. Sometimes, a student has a quizzical look on their face, wondering how the 10-meter band is "higher than" the 80-meter band. After all, 10 is smaller than 80. Of course, what's going on is that the instructor is thinking about the radio waves being higher in frequency, not wavelength . Again, wavelength is the reciprocal of frequency, so the numbers move in the opposite direction. It is probably better to express it this way: "The higher HF bands (greater than 14 MHz) work best during daylight hours." What To Do? First off, be aware of this potential confusion when flipping back and forth between frequency and wavelength. Frequency and wavelength are well entrenched in the hobby, so neither of them is likely to disappear. If you are talking to a new ham, be very specific with the frequency and indicate whether it is expressed in MHz, kHz or GHz. Reduce the ambiguity. Do the same thing with wavelength or band by explicitly saying "meters." If you are the new ham, keep a band chart handy to aid in interpreting discussions that intermingle frequency and wavelength, and don't be shy about asking the question for clarity. With experience, it will become second nature to make the connection in your brain.

Our local ham radio club, the Tri-Lakes Monument Radio Association (WØTLM), just wrapped up another of its semi-annual license class offerings (November 2024). As Bob KØNR reported earlier this year in this blog piece , the club restructured its class offerings in 2024 to utilize Ham Radio School's online courses as the primary student learning content. This approach has students individually study the online lessons' content instead of the more traditional in-person or remote meeting group classroom with live instructor lectures. The results have been very impressive - a 100% pass rate for students taking the license exam. To date in 2024, over 70 successful student exams have been completed in the two class offerings. Keeping It Together: The class is structured to keep all students progressing through the online learning content together. While the online content can be accessed by the student at any time convenient to his or her individual schedule, the class directors provide a pacing schedule that defines the expected lesson accomplishments or deadlines for the students. Along with encouragement and check-ins by the club's volunteer Elmers, the entire group learns in lockstep, facilitating group review sessions held weekly by online remote meeting. A Personal Touch: While students learn using the online course readings, video lessons, reviews, quizzes and more, the club maintains a personal connection with each student through a combination of periodic in-person meetings, weekly remote meetings, and regular Elmer check-ins with students. Each course has at least three in-person group sessions for students in addition to the weekly remote meetings and Elmer check-ins: Kick-off Session - Includes personal introductions, a class overview, background information on ham radio and its uses, a variety of ham radio operational demonstrations, and establishment of student expectations. Dedicated Exam Session - An exam session with student seating priority held about one week after the expected completion of coursework. Get On The Air (GOTA) Session - Held about one week after the exam, students receive assistance programming HT radios and making their first on-air calls by simplex and repeater communications. Elmer Loren KEØHZ checks the HT program installed by a student. -- photo by Dan Oldfield NØOLD The Elmer's Role: Prior class survey feedback clearly indicates the importance of having an Elmer assigned to each student who can provide on-demand help and encouragement. The club assigns 3 to 4 students to each Elmer to keep the responsibility easily manageable and to help ensure that Elmers can get to know students well. Elmers and students agree to a regular check-in schedule and communication method at the class kick-off session. Elmers also make themselves available for answering questions as needed by the student. During regular check-ins, Elmers often inquire about things the student has learned in the assigned lessons for the week to get a conversation going and to gauge student comprehension. Many club Elmers also provide shack visits for their assigned students, broadening their exposure to ham radio equipment and station setup options. Many Elmers and students in this year's class offerings have become well acquainted and established longer term mentoring relationships. Clearly, the Elmer is a key component to a successful class offering. Tech + General in Parallel: In this recent fall class offering, the club expanded the license class options beyond just a Technician License Class. Instead, the class offered students the option of adding General License study as well, utilizing the Ham Radio School online General License Course . The General License study option was available to students possessing no license or to students already possessing a Technician license. For the brand new student with no license, taking on both Technician and General content simultaneously was recommended only for those possessing a good technical background and who were comfortable with science and mathematics topics. To date, 5 of 35 students in the class have taken and passed both the Technician and General exams, while two additional students already possessing the Technician license upgraded to General. For students seeking to go from scratch to General, Ham Radio School provided a recommended combined lesson sequence blending the Technician and General License Courses' lessons. In this blended lesson sequence, the Technician License Course lesson sequence is followed primarily, and General License Course lessons are injected at appropriate points. This way, a student can study both Tech and General content together by topic, first covering the topic at the Technician level and then deepening their understanding with closely related General learning content. Student feedback on this experimental parallel course is pending, but the 100% pass rate for the students who have attempted it is a good early indicator that it worked well. Class students take Technician and General exams at the dedicated VE session for the class. -- photo by Dan Oldfield NØOLD Tentative Conclusions: Student survey feedback is still pending, and a handful of students who delayed taking the exam have yet to report their results. However, the perfect success achieved with 80% of the class reporting results so far is very encouraging. And, this includes 20% of the total class enrollment achieving the General License. We will update this report in a later blog piece once survey data and remaining exam results are collected. We are sharing this experience to encourage existing and potential license class instructors to consider this class structure. While it still takes a bit of work to provide students an exceptional license class experience, the Ham Radio School online courses vastly reduce the preparatory burden. It takes a big load off the instructors and provides much greater flexibility for the students. It allows the instructor team to focus on individual student needs and providing hands-on fun demonstrations and activities, improving student success rates. We hope you'll give it a try with your next class offering, and we're confident you will see the results with your students. If you are interested in offering a license class using the Ham Radio School online course approach, drop us a note and we'll be happy to help with your planning. info@hamradioschool.com

A common question I hear from new hams is “how do I get a vanity call sign?” The process is probably harder than it needs to be but certainly something any ham can do. In this article, I’ll keep things as simple as possible, focusing on what a new ham must do to get a vanity call. That is, this piece is focused on the new Technician or General that wants to get a special callsign. As part of the recent FCC license application fees, there is now a $35 charge for an amateur vanity application. (It used to be free.) The basic steps to getting your special call sign are: 1. Choose one or more call signs that you’d like. 2. Find your FCC Registration Number (FRN) 3. Log onto the FCC Universal Licensing System (ULS) 4. Apply using “Request Vanity Call Sign” 5. Pay the FCC license application fee To go deeper on this topic take a look at the ARRL page , which describes the vanity call sign program in greater detail. 1. Choose A Call Sign The first step is probably the most fun, choosing what call sign you’d like to have. I chose my callsign KØNR because of its short length and the traditional KØ prefix. My buddy Stu chose the call sign WØSTU to match his name. Steve WGØAT chose his call sign to reflect his passion for hiking with pack goats. Many people choose a call sign with their initials in it. You certainly may have other ideas on what constitutes the right call sign for you. Tech and General class licensees are allowed to choose either a 1×3 call sign (beginning with prefix N, K or W), or a 2×3 call sign (beginning with prefix letter K or W), referred to by the FCC as call sign Groups C and D. Of course, you must choose a call sign that is not assigned, which you can check by doing a search on the FCC ULS web site . RadioQTH has a useful tool for searching for available call signs. You should probably choose a few call signs that you’d be happy with and submit them in order of preference (see #4 below). Your first choice may not be available for a number of reasons, such as someone else may have just applied for it. 2. Find Your FCC Registration Number (FRN) If you have an FCC radio license, you have an FRN. It was probably assigned to you when your license was first issued. Think of this as your user name for the ULS web site. To find your FRN, search for your call sign on the ULS page . 3. Log onto the FCC ULS Next you need to log into the ULS , which will probably be the most difficult part of the process — select the Online Filing login option. You’ll need your FRN and your password for the site. Hopefully, you just found your FRN but you may not have a password assigned yet. If not, you’ll need to follow the Forgot Your Password? instructions on this page and get assistance. 4. Request a Vanity Call Sign Once you log into ULS, it should show you a list of licenses assigned to your FRN. You probably only have one, so click on that one to open the License Manager page. You should see a blue menu box near the right edge of the page, titled Work on This License . This menu box includes a Request Vanity Call Sign selection. Continue past the ‘Applicant Questions’ page (answer ‘no’ to each) to the ‘Select Eligibility’ page. Select your category, most commonly Primary station preference list unless you are requesting a vanity call formerly held by you or a close relative. Continue to the next page to provide a list, in order of preference, of vanity call signs you would prefer to be assigned. Continue through the remaining self-explanatory steps of the application process after you have entered your set of preferred call signs. 5. Pay the FCC Application Fee Follow the FCC instructions on how to pay the $35 application fee. This should get your application into the FCC for your call sign. It will probably take a few weeks to get action from the FCC, so be patient. Good luck with your new call! 73, Bob K0NR Postscript This article provides the basic information for getting a vanity callsign, one that is readily available. Some hams may want to get callsign that has been previously issued, perhaps a 1x2 or 2x1 callsign. (You'll need an Extra class license for that.) Competition for these callsigns is usually strong, so you'll want to apply on the day they first become available, which is usually after the 2 year grace period expires. Here some tools that will help you figure that out: https://www.ae7q.com/ https://vanities.k2cr.com/

Hamvention 2024 is in the rearview mirror, and we had a terrific show! This was our first time back at Hamvention after an 11-year hiatus, and we had a blast helping loads of new friends get started earning or upgrading their licenses. Thanks to all of you who stopped by to chat or snag one of our new online courses or one of our study guide books. We really enjoyed tagging up with some of our recent successful students and meeting them in person. We also look forward to working with the organization reps and individual instructors we met who are interested in running a license class or two in the near future using our easy-to-implement Instructor Resources or online courses. The response to our new approach to offering group classes with our online courses was tremendous - students study asynchronously according to their own schedules using our online course as the primary study content. Instructors provide pacing of lesson coverage to keep the group progressing together, and they add their own Elmering, demonstrations, review sessions, and Q&A exercises. It makes standing up a class offering remarkably easy, removing the substantial instructor burden of preparing and presenting lessons live. Our trials of this new approach with our local club in Colorado were amazingly successful, and we'll be blogging about that experience soon. Visitors also seemed to enjoy hearing about our new online courses for individual license exam preparation. The courses include a digital 'ebook' of our popular study guides (full color), video instruction hosted by Stu WØSTU, exam content review, quizzes, practice exams, optional depth media, and more. If you weren't able to make Hamvention for our personal tour through our online courses, check out our 4-minute video overview on our course description pages: Technician License Course General License Course Extra License Course We're looking into additional show opportunities for the future, so perhaps we'll be in your neighborhood soon. Check back here and we'll be sure to let you know where we're headed. Thanks to the Dayton Hamvention group for putting on an outstanding show this year. We'll look forward to our next visit!

One of our recent Extra License Course graduates, Alex WA7NUT, was kind enough to leave a terrific review and recommendation for Ham Radio School on the Reddit Amateur Radio forum (r/amateurradio): My reason for going through all this is to learn and understand the material, not just pass the test. The learning is the whole point for me. I'm about halfway through Ham Radio School's Extra course. I aced the General test a week and a half ago and took the Technician test two weeks before that. But I didn't do any memorization, I was just able to work out problems based on knowing the material. And subsequently: I can't recommend this (Ham Radio School) course enough. Today I passed my Extra exam. I passed my General 1 month and 1 day ago. I passed my Tech 2 weeks before that. -- Alex WA7NUT Not everyone preparing for a license exam has Alex’s rationale in mind, that of really learning radio concepts. Many students are focused on just passing the exam by what they believe will be the quickest, most efficient manner possible to get on the air. Usually, this involves a lot of (mostly) brainless memorization of exam questions and answers, a rather painful exercise. But, as Alex points out, really learning radio concepts can be a very efficient method of exam preparation, and perhaps THE most efficient method when looking forward to earning the General and Extra licenses. This type of exam preparation – conceptual learning focused on exam topics – is exactly what we mean to convey with our Ham Radio School motto: Elevate your learning! The Ham Radio School Way: Our method of exam preparation targets a middle ground of learning that is comfortable for the vast majority of students. Clearly, some rote memorization is necessary for success within some exam topics, such as band plan limits. However, we strive to explain each exam question pool item without going over the head of the typical student and without going into extreme topic depth that muddies the knowledge retention needed for exam success. We stay focused on exam topics, presenting specific question items within a framework of simple explanation, providing an efficient system of learning. This approach helps you to understand the question and the correct response item, as well as why the response item is correct. We also use a building block approach to help you create a well-founded knowledge network in your mind that you can draw upon to make inferences and to reason out exam questions or practical operating issues. Starting with fundamentals, we weave a story for you in our instructional materials that effectively blends operating concepts, FCC rules and regulations, radio science and engineering, safety, and practical information. As your mental network of relationships among these integrated topics grows, you will evolve a robust understanding of amateur radio and exam topics. You will ace your license exam and be head-and-shoulders above the typical brainless memorizer in on-air operational readiness. Further, each of our course lessons includes optional depth resources for those who wish to dig a little deeper. Our courses offer depth media recommendations that include video, audio, articles, and links that reinforce exam learning or that go beyond the exam for deeper understanding. You can continue your learning even after you have aced the exam, taking your expertise to the next level. Why It Matters: Amateur radio has more than 100 years of history. Although our informal moniker, ham radio, may have derogatory roots (1) alluding to a less-than-professional expertise, we seek to help preserve a legacy of quality operations on the allocated Amateur Radio Service bands passed down to us from myriad amateur operators who came before us. We seek to develop and maintain operators who implement good amateur practices – operating so that neighbors, family, and the general public who observe us will be impressed with amateur radio (2) . Maintaining the on-air quality of ham radio requires a level of solid understanding of radio operations and sciences, as well as respect for the wealth of spectrum that our radio service is granted. Maintaining quality operations within the stated purposes of the Amateur Radio Service will help to avoid the loss of spectrum allocation to our service. This is why Ham Radio School endeavors to go the extra mile with our exam preparation materials and encourage you to elevate your learning. We want you to really get it and get on the air with competence and confidence. 1 – The term “ham radio” is thought to have arisen from early professional wireless telegraphers who referred to amateur radio operators as ham fisted, meaning their Morse Code was imperfect or substandard, relative to a professional telegrapher’s code. 2 – An encapsulated restatement of commentary offered by former FCC Special Counsel for the Spectrum Enforcement Division, Riley Hollingsworth, who offered numerous “Riley-isms” about how to conduct good operating practices in the FCC Amateur Radio Service.

Maybe you have heard about ham radio from a licensed friend or family member who has answered this question for you from their perspective. Or, perhaps you have only heard that ham radio is great for emergency communications, and the rest is a murky pit. Either way, let us share with you our view of the top 10 best things about ham radio and help you gain a better understanding of why over 3/4 million US citizens currently possess a ham radio license. #10. Ham radio builds your self confidence. While this might not be the first advantage of ham radio that you would expect, it is absolutely true. You will gain confidence in yourself initially by simply studying and passing your exam to earn your license -- with our study approach and materials, anyone can do it. Next, you will gain confidence in pushing-to-talk with your station microphone and transmitting your voice to all who are listening on the frequencies -- it's a bit like public speaking initially, but you will quickly gain on-air competence and commensurate confidence to communicate regularly with ease among the friendly on-air community. As you learn more about radio and operations, you will accomplish much more, perhaps by configuring a digital communications station, using satellite communications, or installing a mobile station in your vehicle -- each accomplishment boosting your confidence in your abilities along with your knowledge and experience. Try it! Get a confidence boost today by earning your Technician license. #9. Ham radio bridges generations. The intrigue of two-way radio communications appeals to people of all ages. There is something magic and universally enticing about reaching out incredible distances with invisible airwaves to make personal contact with another human. Add the variety of operational options of voice communications, digital modes, Internet gateway activation, satellite ops, atmospheric skip propagation, and more, and the overlap of interests naturally generates connections independent of age or identity. Expand your generational influence with ham radio! #8. Ham radio makes you part of a world-wide community. Amateur radio operators around the globe communicate with one another every day across international boundaries, sharing personal stories, exchanging station information, and extending international goodwill. I have often heard stories of hams who travel internationally and are hosted by their on-air friends in their home nation. Even if you never find yourself face-to-face with your new international associates, you can maintain a friendship with regular contacts and cordial dialog. It is an experience and an opportunity unique to ham radio operators. Join our cozy planet-spanning community! #7. Ham radio will not allow you to become bored. It provides an enormous variety of worthwhile, interesting, and engaging activities and challenges that you might otherwise never experience. Here are just a few typical examples: Find and use local VHF/UHF repeaters in your area to contact other hams Learn how to be the net control station for a local regular on-air net meeting Install a mobile station in your vehicle Coordinate your overlanding adventure using ham radio Use your radio to send and receive email or share digital files Use your radio to make contacts through a satellite repeater or with the ISS Help provide communications support to local public events Volunteer to provide emergency communications services to agencies Find or start a ham club in your area and get involved in activities Help others learn about ham radio Establish an HF station for long-distance communications Build a digital circuit to perform a cool radio communications function Experiment with a new antenna design Activate a mountain summit with radio (Summits on the Air) Activate a state park or national park with a portable station (Parks on the Air) Activate a remote geographic location with a group of hams (DXpedition) Learn and operate with Morse Code via continuous wave (CW) transmissions Enter a radio contest and hone your on-air skills Participate in a hidden transmitter "fox hunt" contest Participate in emergency communications exercises And SO MUCH MORE! Get your ham radio adventure started. Why wait, when there is a lifetime of experiences to enjoy? #6. Ham radio provides an opportunity for community service. Radio communications come in handy across a lot of the public service domain. You can help administer local parades, fun runs and races, fairs, and almost any other event requiring coordination of the host team. You can engage your community organizations to offer the services that you and your fellow hams can provide. You can also become involved in Amateur Radio Emergency Services (ARES) to assist response services such as Red Cross, Salvation Army, and other in providing shelter and relief services and other emergency response actions. With a bit more specialized training, you can support your local civil defense agencies through Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Services (RACES). Contact a local ham club about affiliation with ARES or RACES. Give back to your community. Earn your license. #5. Ham radio can improve your technical skills. If you try any of the myriad activities in ham radio, or simply rub elbows with fellow hams, you are apt to find yourself picking up additional technical information about radio, on-air procedures, electronics, digital communications, and more. It's just part of the nature of ham radio -- your technical knowledge and skills will broaden naturally as you advance your learning and experience base. Advance your geekiness today! (It's quite cool.) #4. Ham radio introduces you to new friends. You will make new friends on the air, chatting with other hams, but you will also make new friends in a radio club or within any organizations you engage in public service, radio education, or emergency preparedness. You are likely to find many new friends with similar interests while pursuing your license and once you are operating regularly. You will find some of the friendliest, smartest, and most generous people you have ever met in the ham community. Make an interesting new friend today with ham radio! #3. Ham radio promotes life-long learning. It is nearly impossible for any one individual to master all of the multifarious activities of ham radio. You can continue to expand your learning across a lifetime with all the interesting things to do and challenges to meet. See #7 above for a surface scratch of some of the engaging endeavors and adventures you can have. You can steer your own learning and create your own adventures with ham radio across the wide spectrum of opportunities it provides, and you'll always find fellow hams with similar interests ready to help with your learning. Expand your mind over a lifetime with ham radio. #2. Ham radio is the best backup / emergency communications system in the world. Cell phone networks are fragile and unreliable in emergency situations where hundreds or thousands of individuals jam the cell networks simultaneously. Further, cell communications are limited to just two parties at once. Internet and cell services are also heavily dependent upon commercial power that is often disrupted. On the other hand, ham radio works when all else fails. It is easily powered with batteries, and a broad range of frequencies exist on which you can communicate across town, across the continent, or around the planet. And your communications are not limited to one-on-one calls. A network of numerous individual hams can share communications on a single frequency or repeater station, getting information disseminated with an efficiency superseded perhaps only by commercial broadcasts. However, those commercial broadcasts are one-way communications with multiple single points of failure and, unlike ham radio, do not provide for dialog or detailed exchanges between parties. It has been proven again and again through hurricanes, wildfires, tsunami, earthquakes, terrorist attacks, power outages, and more -- there really is no better emergency communications capability in the world than ham radio. Add comms (or bandwidth, if you prefer the 'B') to your beans, bullets, and bandages to round out your emergency prep. #1. Ham radio is fun! As our pal and senior elmer Bob KØNR is fond of saying, the primary purpose of ham radio is to "have fun messing around with radio." It is natural for most people to have a little initial "mic fright" and be shy about transmitting over the air the first time or two. But once you get past that common human reaction you will get a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment in having the ability to communicate with other hams with the electromagnetic magic of radio. We think the on-air communications aspect is only one of the many fun things about ham radio. We've listed many of the other enjoyable facets above, but when you add them all up they combine to produce this overarching greatest thing about ham radio - fun! Go have fun! Get started earning your Technician license today with HamRadioSchool.com's study materials. You'll be glad you did. -- Stu WØSTU

The Amateur Radio Service is better known by its colloquial name, ham radio. It is one of numerous radio services sanctioned and administered by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC administers a wide variety of radio services, each with a unique purpose and with dedicated or shared segments of radio spectrum, or bands of frequencies. Here are a few examples of radio services that you'll be familiar with: AM Broadcast Radio [535-1705-kHz] FM Broadcast Radio [88-108 MHz] Citizen Band Radio [26.96 - 27.41 MHz] Aviation Radio [117.975 – 137 MHz and others] Commercial TV, Ch.2 - 6 [54 - 88 MHz] Commercial TV, Ch.7-13 [174 - 216 MHz] And there are many, many others for cellular communications, satellite communications, emergency services communications, ocean vessel communications, military communications, and more. Here is a chart depicting all the radio services administered by the FCC and the slices of radio spectrum dedicated or shared by each service. Radio spectrum frequencies run horizontally along each row of this chart, and each of those variously colored blocks is a unique radio spectrum allocation to a specific radio service like those examples listed above. The Amateur Radio Service has several bands of spectrum allocated to its use and indicated in this chart. We refer to these as the "ham bands," and they are mostly fully dedicated to ham radio operators' use, with a few shared spectrum exceptions. Like all other radio services, the Amateur Radio Service has specific purposes for the use of the allocated spectrum. These purposes are outlined by the FCC in the U.S. Federal Government Title 47 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 97, Amateur Radio Service . The stated purposes include: (a) Recognition and enhancement of the value of the amateur service to the public as a voluntary noncommercial communication service, particularly with respect to providing emergency communications. (b) Continuation and extension of the amateur's proven ability to contribute to the advancement of the radio art. (c) Encouragement and improvement of the amateur service through rules which provide for advancing skills in both the communication and technical phases of the art. (d) Expansion of the existing reservoir within the amateur radio service of trained operators, technicians, and electronics experts. (e) Continuation and extension of the amateur's unique ability to enhance international goodwill. So, the Amateur Radio Service is the formal FCC designation for ham radio, with the defined purposes above and the allocation of spectrum for those purposes. Where, then, did the term "ham radio" come from? The true origins are not definitively known, but the following origin seems to have the best ring of truth to it among a few myths. In the early days of radio communication via Morse Code transmitters, there existed professional telegraphers and amateur enthusiasts. The professionals, taking pride in their new profession, strived to produce clean, regularly spaced code transmissions meeting the desired standards of Morse Code. These pros were said to have looked down on the amateurs whose code was nowhere near as clean and precise, mocking them as "ham fisted operators." The term stuck, became abbreviated to simply "hams," and transformed from a term of derision to an adopted term of endearment for amateur radio operators. The FCC Amateur Radio Service today licenses more than 780,000 individuals (Oct 2021). I hope you'll join us by earning your FCC Amateur Technician License, if you haven't already! -- Stu WØSTU